Fig. 3
From: Immunometabolism in biofilm infection: lessons from cancer
The interactions between immune cells and biofilm infection. Biofilm-associated biomaterials and bacteria interact with humoral and cellular components of the immune system. Leukocyte chemokinesis and activation are triggered by the release of pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), opsonization of bacteria, and complement activation through the interaction with toll-like receptors (TLRs), immunoglobulin Fc receptors (FcRs), and complement receptors (CRs). Bacteria, in turn, induce the release of factors such as CXCL1, IL-12, IL-10, deoxyadenosine (dAdo), leukocidins, α-hemolysin (Hla), phenol-soluble modulin alpha 3 (PSMa3), proteases, and reactive oxygen species (ROS)/ reactive nitrogen species (RNS) that control and/or inactivate the host humoral and cellular immune responses, and also use persistence strategies, including entrenching in protective biofilms (Campoccia et al. 2019)