Fig. 2

Main cell death mechanisms. The liver harbors parenchymal cells and different immune cell populations that contribute to immune reaction till their death through a regulated cell death mechanism. Hepatocytes are classical apoptotic cells since their death due to toxic metabolites occurs naturally and should not trigger inflammation. Recently, oxidative-regulated cell death Ferroptosis had been highlighted in various liver injuries, including sepsis driving reactive oxygen formation and inflammation. Necroptosis and pyroptosis are carried out by multiple cells after, e.g., TNF-\(\alpha\) stimulation and drive inflammation during liver infection. NETosis dying neutrophils leave a vast number of extracellular debris and nucleotide nets to trap and destroy microorganisms even after their death. Finally, mechanically or chemical destruction of cells is apparent due to liver hypoxia or directly due to pathogen spread and toxic immune response