The liver in sepsis: molecular mechanism of liver failure and their potential for clinical translation

Table 1 Major cytokines in the liver during sepsis, their primary local sources, and effects

Cytokine	Effect	Source	References
IL-1β	– Synergistic effects with TNF-α	KC, M	(Shen et al. 2020)
IL-6	– Stimulation of acute-phase reaction	HC, KC, LSEC	(Schmidt-Arras and Rose-John 2016; Kawasaki et al. 2010)
IL-8	– Activation of neutrophils	HC	(Rajarathnam et al. 1994)
TNF-α	– Stimulation of IL-6 synthesis – Cell death induction	KC, N, CA	(Kishimoto 2010; Zhao et al. 2020)
IFN-\({\varvec{\gamma}}\)	– HC apoptosis – Upregulation of TNF-α, CD14	NKT	(Horras et al. 2011; He and Sun 2018)
TGF-ß	– Triggers immunosuppression – Induces IL-6 release by LSECs	HSC, Platelet	(Zhou et al. 2020; Balaphas et al. 2020)
IL-10	– Downregulation of TNF-α – Inhibition of monocyte differentiation	HC, M	Choi et al. 2019; Wang et al. 2018)

KC Kupffer cell, HC hepatocyte, N neutrophil granulocyte, CA cholangiocyte, NKT natural killer cell, LSEC liver sinusoidal endothelial cell, HSC hepatic stellate cell, M Macrophage

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