Table 1 Characterizations of several common PTMs

Phosphorylation

Ser, Thr, Tyr, His, Asp, Pro, Glu, Cys, Arg, and Lys (Jennings et al. 2022)

Enzymatic (kinases)

Enzymatic (phosphatases)

Jennings et al. (2022)

Ubiquitination

Lys, Cys, Ser, and Thr, (Kelsall 2022)

Enzymatic [ubiquitinactivating (E1), -conjugating (E2), and -ligase (E3)] (Reyes-Turcu et al. 2009)

Enzymatic [deubiquitinating enzymes (DUBs)] (Reyes-Turcu et al. 2009)

Kelsall (2022); Reyes-Turcu et al. (2009)

Methylation

Lys (mono-, di-, and tri-methylation) (Bhat et al. 2021), Arg (mono- and di-methylation of Arg) (Xu and Richard 2021)

Enzymatic (Lys methyltransferase and Protein Arg methyltransferases) (Bhat et al. 2021)

Enzymatic (Lys demethylases, Lys-specific histone demethylase 1and JmjC domain-containing 6) (Bhat et al. 2021; Manni et al. 2022)

Bhat et al. (2021; Xu and Richard (2021)

O-GlcNAcylation

Ser and Thr (Yang and Qian 2017)

Enzymatic (O-GlcNAc transferase) (Wang et al. 2023)

Enzymatic (O-GlcNAcase) (Wang et al. 2023)

Wang et al. (2023); Yang and Qian (2017)

Acetylation

Lys, N-terminus of proteins, thiol group of Cys

Enzymatic (acetyltransferases) and non-enzymatic(S-to-N acyl transfer mechanism)

Enzymatic (deacetylases and sirtuins)

James et al. (2018); Jennings et al. (2022)

SUMOylation

Lys (Chang and Yeh (2020)

Enzymatic [SUMO activating (E1), -conjugating (E2), and -ligase (E3)] (Yeh 2009)

Enzymatic [deSUMOylating enzyme (SENP)] (Yeh 2009)

Chang et al. (2020); Du et al. (2021); Yeh (2009)

Succinylation

Lys

Enzymatic (KAT2A/GCN5) (Wang et al. 2018b) and non-enzymatic

Enzymatic (SIRT5, SIRT7) (Li et al. 2016; Rardin et al. 2013)

Li et al. (2016); Rardin et al. (2013); Wang et al. (2018b)

Lactylation

Lys (Chen et al. 2021a)

Enzymatic [p300/CBP (Zhang et al. 2019b)] and non-enzymatic(lactyl-glutathione) (Chen et al. 2021a)

Unknown

Chen et al. (2021a)

Propionylation

Lys (Tang et al. 2022)

Enzymatic (p300/CBP (Chen et al. 2007), GCN5 (Kebede et al. 2017), PCAF (Kebede et al. 2017), MOF (Han et al. 2018), BRPF1-KAT6 (Yan et al. 2020)) and non-enzymatic (high concentrations of propionyl-CoA) (You et al. 2019)

Enzymatic [SIRT1 (Cheng et al. 2009)]

Chen et al. (2007); Cheng et al. (2009); Han et al. (2018); Kebede et al. (2017); Tang et al. (2022); Yan et al. (2020); You et al. (2019)

Malonylation

Lys (Zou et al. 2023)

Enzymatic (unknown (Zou et al. 2023), donor of malonylation: Malonyl-CoA)

Enzymatic (SIRT5) (Baek et al. 2023; Wang et al. 2022b)

(Baek et al. 2023; Wang et al. (2022b); Zou et al. 2023)

S-Palmitoylation

Cys (Liu et al. 2022b)

Enzymatic (zDHHC palmitoylase family) (Zhou et al. 2023)

Enzymatic (APT1/2, PPT1/

2, ABHD17A/B/

C) (Zhou et al. 2023)

Liu et al. (2022b); Zhou et al. (2023)

S-Glutathionylation

Cys (Rashdan et al. 2020)

Enzymatic (Glutathione S-transferases (GST)

) and

non-enzymatic (Martinez-Ruiz and Lamas 2007; Rashdan et al. 2020)

Enzymatic (Glutaredoxins (Grx), SRX, TRX) (Rashdan et al. 2020)

Martinez-Ruiz and Lamas (2007); Rashdan et al. (2020)

Crotonylation

Lys (Tan et al. 2011), Ser (Liao et al. 2020)

Enzymatic (Crotonyltransferases:p300/CBP (Sabari et al. 2015), KAT8 /MOF (Liu et al. 2017), KAT2B /PCAF (Xu et al. 2017),

Gcn5 and Esa1 (Kollenstart et al. 2019))

Enzymatic [HDAC1–3 (Kelly et al. 2018; Madsen and Olsen 2012)

and SIRT1-3 (Bao et al. 2014)]

Bao et al. (2014); Kelly et al. (2018); Kollenstart et al. (2019); Liao et al. (2020); Liu et al. (2017); Madsen and Olsen (2012); Sabari et al. (2015); Tan et al. (2011); Wang et al. (2021); Xu et al. (2017)

2-hydroxyisobutyrylation

Lys (Huang et al. 2018a)

Enzymatic [p300 (Huang et al. 2018b)

and TIP60 (Wang et al. 2022c)]

Enzymatic [HDAC2 and HDAC3 (Huang et al. 2018a)]

Huang et al. (2018a; b); Wang et al. (2022c)

β-hydroxybutyrylation

Lys (Huang et al. 2021)

Enzymatic [p300/CBP (Huang et al. 2021)]

Enzymatic [HDAC1-3 (Huang et al. 2021), SIRT1-2 (Huang et al. 2021), SIRT3 (Zhang et al. 2019c)]

Huang et al. (2021); Zhang et al. (2019c)