Table 1 The main beneficial mechanisms of rehabilitation exercise for CTE

Reduction of abnormal protein deposition

Tau protein

Rehabilitation exercises can reduce tau protein acetylation and promote Wnt/GSK3 β and PI3K/Akt signaling pathways, reducing P-Tau production and increasing its clearance

Mankhong et al. (2020); Chen et al. (2020); Xu et al. (2022b)

β-amyloid protein

Rehabilitation exercise increases ADAM10 expression and promote PGC-1 α / FNDC5 pathway thereby reduces Aβ production

Yu et al. (2021a); McMeekin et al. (2020)

Antiinflammation and oxidation stres

IL-6, CLU

Rehabilitation exercise promotes the release of IL-6 from skeletal muscles and the release of CLUs from the liver to reduce neuroinflammation

Chow et al. (2022); Bateman et al. (2016)

Promote angiogenesis and improve micro-circulation

VEGF

Rehabilitation exercise can increase plasma lactic acid to promote ERK1/2 and Akt signal transduction and promote EPC to secretion VEGF

Morland et al. (2017b); Ross et al. (2014)

Promotion of neurogenesis

BDNF

BDNF promotes neuronal development and differentiation through the BDNF/TrkB signaling pathway

Colucci-D’Amato et al. (2020)

L-lactic acid

L-lactate activates HCA1 to promote the AKT/PK pathway to promote cell survival and value-added

Lambertus et al. (2021)

MCT2

Rehabilitation exercise increases MCT2 expression and improves neuronal energy metabolism

Lev-Vachnish et al. (2019); Yu et al. (2021b)

The promotion of synaptogenesis and the increase of synaptic plasticity

LTP

Regular rehabilitation exercises can increase LTP

Vivar and Praag (2017)

Glutamate

Rehabilitation exercise increases the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate

Andersen et al. (2021); Maddock et al. (2016)