Monitoring Immune Dysfunctions in the Septic Patient: A New Skin for the Old Ceremony

Table 2 Putative target-directed therapies for restoring immune function during sepsis-induced immunosuppression based on biological staging.

Target/Immune dysfunction	Surrogate marker	Drug
Deactivated monocytes	Decreased pro-inflammatory cytokine release in response to LPS	IFN-γ, GM-CSF, G-CSF, TLR agonists
	Decreased HLA-DR expression
	Decreased CX3CR1 expression
	Decreased circulating GM-CSF concentration
Deactivated/decreased DCs	Decreased circulating DCs	FLT3-L, TLR agonists
Lymphocyte anergy	Lowered lymphocyte proliferation	IL-7, GITR agonists Immunoglobulins
	Increased % of Treg ?
Persistent increased IL-10 concentration Increased apoptosis	Persistent increased IL-10 concentration Lymphopenia	Anti-IL-10, AS 101 Ritonavir, caspase inhibitors, Fas/FasL blockers
	Decreased circulating DCs
	Decreased monocyte CD14 expression
	Increased annexin-V labeling

ISSN: 1528-3658